Chitin degradative systems

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to chitin degradative systems, in particular to systems containing enzymes that bind to and depolymerize chitin. These systems have a number of applications. The present invention also describes enzymes with at least two catalytic domains in which the domains are separated by poly-amino acid linkers.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/483,135, filed Jun. 27, 2003 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/483,383, filed Jun. 27, 2003, the contents of which are incorporated herein, in their entirety, by reference.

This invention was made with government support under Contract Number SA7528051E awarded by the NOM Sea Grant. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The invention is generally directed to degradative enzyme systems. In particular, the present invention is directed to chitin depolymerases and associated proteins and enzymes found in Microbulbifer degradans.

2. Background of the Invention

Chitin, a homopolymer of repeating units of β-1,4-linked N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc), is the second most abundant polymer in the biome. It is found in various forms throughout the marine environment and is a component of crustacean and insect exoskeletons, yeast and fungal cell walls, and diatoms. Chitin is usually at least 90% acetylated and is often in a complex with proteins and other carbohydrates. The microcrystalline structure of chitin varies between antiparallel sheets (alpha chitin), parallel sheets (beta chitin), and a mixture of both (gamma chitin). Alpha chitin is found in the calyces of hydrozoa, mollusks, plankton, and as a component of the cuticles of arthropods. Beta chitin, a less stable and more degradable form of chitin, is found in mollusks, squid pen, diatoms, and insect exoskeletons and cocoons, and is the major component of fungal cell walls.

Microbulbifer degradans strain 2-40 is a marine γ-proteobacterium that was isolated from decaying Sparina alterniflora, a salt marsh cord grass in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Consistent with its isolation from decaying plant matter, M. degradans strain 2-40 is able to degrade many complex polysaccharides, including cellulose, pectin, xylan, and chitin, which are common components of the cell walls of higher plants. M. degradans strain 2-40 is also able to depolymerize algal cell wall components, such as agar, agarose, and laminarin, as well as protein, starch, pullulan, and alginic acid. In addition to degrading this plethora of polymers, M. degradans strain 2-40 can utilize each of the polysaccharides as the sole carbon source. Therefore, M. degradans strain 2-40 is not only an excellent model of microbial degradation of insoluble complex polysaccharides (ICPs) but can also be used as a paradigm for complete metabolism of these ICPs. ICPs are polymerized saccharides that are used for form and structure in animals and plants. They are insoluble in water and therefore are difficult to break down.

Chitin is a difficult substrate for microbial degradation because it is usually crystalline and complexed with protein, salts, and other carbohydrates. Chitin is resistant to chemical degradation and is difficult to digest enzymatically because of the multiple steps required to expose and cleave the polymer. Because chitin resists chemical and physical breakdown, microorganisms must play a major role in its degradation. Many microorganisms have developed efficient strategies for the depolymerization, transport, and metabolism of chitin and its derivatives. These systems involve multiple enzyme activities, usually encoded on separate polypeptides. For example, Pseudoalteromonas strain S91, Serratia marcescens, and Streptomyces coelicolor secrete several chitin-depolymerizing enzymes in the presence of chitin. Surprisingly, almost no free chitin is found in marine sediments, demonstrating the efficiency of these microbial systems. Therefore, chitin represents an abundant source of carbon and nitrogen to microorganisms in the marine environment.

The glycoside hydrolase family 18 (GH18) domain is the most common catalytic domain of microbial chitin depolymerases. Despite sharing a consensus sequence and a conserved catalytic glutamic acid residue, GH18 domains differ in their activity toward polymeric chitin and chito-oligosaccharides (i.e., endo- versus exo-activity). Chitodextrinases, which depolymerize chitooligosaccharides but not chitin, also contain GH18 domains. Chitinolytic enzymes with GH18 domains have been isolated from organisms as diverse as psychrophilic eubacteria and hyperthermophilic archaeons, demonstrating the wide range of conditions to which these domains have adapted. Because conserved residues are found in GH18 domains with divergent optima and substrate specificities, sequence analysis is insufficient to determine the enzymatic specificities of newly discovered chitinases.

Endo- and exo-chitinases that function cooperatively to depolymerize chitin are known. Endochitinases randomly cleave glycosidic linkages, generating free ends and long chitooligosaccharides. These are then acted upon by exochitinases that release chitobiose from the non-reducing ends of each. While exo- and endo-chitinases are not able to depolymerize chitin alone, the presence of both activities significantly increases the efficiency of chitinolytic systems.

Therefore, there exists a need to identify enzyme systems that use chitin as a substrate, express the genes encoding the proteins using suitable vectors, identify and isolate the amino acid products (enzymes and non-enzymatic products), and use these products as well as organisms containing these genes to degrade plant and animal waste.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

One aspect of the present invention is directed to systems that degrade plant and animal waste.

A further aspect of the invention is directed to a method for the degradation of substances comprising insoluble complex polysaccharides. The method involves breaking at least one bond between glucosamine units in chitooligosaccharides by applying a composition comprising at least one polypeptide that binds to the chitooligosaccharides.

Another aspect of the present invention is directed to groups of enzymes that catalyze reactions involving chitin or chitooligosaccharides.

Another aspect of the present invention is directed to polynucleotides that encoding polypeptides with chitin depolymerase activity, chitodextrinase activity, N-acetyl-D-glucosaminidase activity, or chitin binding activity.

A further aspect of the invention is directed to chimeric genes and vectors comprising genes that encode polypeptides with chitin depolymerase activity, chitodextrinase activity, N-acetyl-D-glucosaminidase activity, or chitin binding activity.

A further aspect of the invention is directed to polypeptides comprising at least two domains, in which the domains are separated by a poly-amino acid linker.

Another aspect of the invention is directed to the treatment of asthma by administering an effective amount of at least one compound made from the application of a composition comprising at least one of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:10, SEQ ID NO:11, SEQ ID NO:12, SEQ ID NO:13, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:15, SEQ ID NO:16, SEQ ID NO:17, or SEQ ID NO:19 to chitin.

A further aspect of the invention is directed to a method for the identification of a nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide comprising any one of the following activities from M. degradans: chitin depolymerase, chitodextrinase, N-acetyl-D-glucosaminidase, or chitin binding. An M. degradans genomic library is constructed in E. coli and screened for the desired activity. Transformed E. coli cells with specific activity are created and isolated.

Other aspects, features, and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, which when taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures, which are part of this disclosure, and which illustrate by way of example the principles of this invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows poly-amino acid linkers, glutamic acid-rich domains, and conserved modules found in several polypeptides from M. degradans;

FIG. 2 shows a model for the chitin depolymerization of ChiB; and

FIG. 3 shows a polypeptide construct comprising a secretion signal, a lipoprotein box, a poly-amino acid linker, a multiple cloning site, and a protein of interest.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The degradation and metabolism of chitin by marine microorganisms appear to involve the synergistic action of multiple proteins, including several extracellular chitin depolymerases, non-catalytic chitin-bonding proteins, chitodextrinases, and periplasmic and cytoplasmic N-acetylglucosaminidases (chitobiases and N-acetylhexosaminidases). These proteins typically include conserved modules that function as catalytic domains or chitin-binding domains and also contain domains of unknown function such as fibronectin type III and/or polycystic kidney disease (PKD) domains. Many of the genes for these enzymes have been cloned individually from chitin-degrading organisms.

M. degradans is unique among marine bacteria in its ability to degrade more than 10 ICPs. The draft genome sequence reveals over 130 putative carbohydrases involved in the degradation of these ICPs. Forty-six of these proteins contain poly-amino acid linkers, which are generally limited to secreted enzymes involved in ICP degradation. The majority of the amino acids in these linkers are serines. This finding strongly suggests the importance of poly-amino acid linker motifs in carbohydrate catalysis in nature.

M. degradans strain 2-40 efficiently metabolizes chitin, among many other ICPs. M. degradans strain 2-40 degrades and metabolizes chitin by expression of extracellular, periplasmic, and cytoplasmic systems for the depolymerization, transport, and metabolism of chitin-derived products. The chitinolytic system of M. degradans strain 2-40 includes at least three chitin depolymerases (ChiA, ChiB, and ChiC), a non-catalytic chitin-binding protein (CbpA), a chitodextrinase (CdxA), and three N-acetylglucosaminidases (HexA, HexB, and HexC). The proteins of this system contain domains similar to catalytic and binding regions of other microbial chitinases and in some cases polyserine- and hydroxyl-amino acid-rich linkers of unknown function.

Chitin depolymerases are enzymes that causes the cleavage of the β-1,4-linkage between N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units. Chitin binding proteins are proteins that can bind to chitin. Chitodextrinases are proteins that are able to degrade soluble chitooligosaccharides but not polymeric chitin. N-acetylglucosaminidases are proteins that are able to cleave chitobiose to form two GlcNAcs.

FIG. 1 shows various domains in ChiA, ChiB, ChiC, CbpA, CdxA, HexA, HexB, and HexC, which were isolated from M. degradans and expressed in E. coli according to the procedures described in Howard et al. (J. Bacteriol. 185(11), 3352-3360, 2003), the contents of which are herein incorporated in their entirety by reference. Protein sequence analysis of these proteins revealed the presence of putative type II secretion signals (black boxes); GH18, GH20, and GH3 domains; poly-amino acid domains (dotted boxes), chitin-binding domains (cross-hatched boxes); glutamine acid-rich domains (grey boxes); carbohydrate-binding domains; PKD domains (boxes with horizontal lines); soluble sugar-binding domains (hatched boxes); and conserved modules found in other microbial chitinases. FIG. 1 also shows the two domains of ChiB (black bars). GH18_(N) is located between amino acids 221 and 605 of ChiB. GH18_(C) is located between amino acids 860 and 1254.

The chiA (SEQ ID NO: 9) gene has 1632 base-pairs. The chiB (SEQ ID NO: 2) gene has 3186 base-pairs. The chiC (SEQ ID NO: 3) gene has 2379 base-pairs. The cbpA (SEQ ID NO: 4) gene has 1347 base-pairs. The cdxA (SEQ ID NO: 5) gene has 3441 base-pairs. The hexA (SEQ ID NO: 6) gene has 2388 base-pairs. The hexB (SEQ ID NO: 7) gene has 2670 base-pairs. The hexC (SEQ ID NO: 8) gene has 1035 base-pairs.

ChiA (SEQ ID NO: 1) is a 543-amino-acid protein with a calculated mass of 57.0 kDa. ChiA comprises two Cbd3 motifs and a GH18 domain. The first Cbd3 consisted of 46 residues and was most similar to a Cbd3 of ChiA from Pseudoalteromonas sp. strain S91. The sequence of the second 47-amino-acid domain was similar to the Cbd3 sequence from ChiA of Vibrio cholerae. The 299-amino-acid GH18 domain exhibited the highest identity with the GH18 domain of ChiA from V. cholerae. ChiA is composed of two amino-terminal chitin binding domains separated by a poly-amino acid linker. The second binding domain is followed by an additional poly-amino acid linker and a GH18 catalytic domain.

ChiB (SEQ ID NO: 10) is a modular, 1,271-amino-acid enzyme with a calculated molecular mass of 136.1 kDa. The amino terminus is predicted to contain a secretion signal that is separated from the remainder of the protein by a poly-amino acid linker of 148 amino acids, 99 of which are serine residues. ChiB includes two complete GH18 domains—an amino-terminal domain GH18_(N) and a carboxy-terminal domain GH18_(C)—separated by a 180-amino-acid linker domain which includes an acidic region consisting of TE-(ET)₁₀ (SEQ ID NO: 21) and another poly-amino acid linker containing 39 serine residues. Both GH18 domains of ChiB are catalytically active but differentially cleave glycosidic linkages, depending on their location within the chitin polymer. In addition, chitin depolymerization is enhanced by the presence of both domains.

One of the catalytic domains of ChiB functions as an endochitinase while the other functions as an exochitinase, as shown in FIG. 2. ChiB is the first eubacterial chitinase demonstrated to contain two functional GH18 catalytic domains. The lack of carbohydrate binding domains and typical accessory domains (e.g., Fibronectin Type III domains, PKD domains) coupled with the discrete activities of each catalytic domain emphasize the novelty of this enzyme.

When expressed as separate polypeptides, each GH18 domain of ChiB was able to depolymerize chitin in zymograms and was most active under similar temperature, pH, and ionic conditions. A detailed description of the procedures used for chitin degradation analysis can be found in Howard et al. (J. Bacteriol. 186(5), 1297-1303, 2004), the contents of which are herein incorporated in their entirety by reference.

GH18_(N) (SEQ ID NO: 17) is a 485 amino-acid protein (between amino acids 221 and 605 of ChiB), encoded by SEQ ID NO: 18 (1455 base-pairs; base-pairs 468 to 1924 of chiB). GH18_(N) is more active on MUF-diNAG than MUF-triNAG and displayed a pattern of activity typical of an exo-chitinase on chitooligosaccharides. Chitobiose was released from the non-reducing end of GlcNAc₄-GlcNAc₆.

GH18_(C) (SEQ ID NO: 19) is a 429 amino-acid protein (between amino acids 860 and 1254 of ChiB), encoded by SEQ ID NO: 20 (287 base-pairs; base-pairs 2512-3800 of chiB). GH18_(C) releases MUF most rapidly from MUF-triNAG and is able to cleave chitooligosaccharides at multiple linkages, demonstrating endo-chitinase activity. GH18_(C) is more than twice as active on native chitin as GH18_(N). This is likely because native chitin has a paucity of free, exposed, ends. Therefore, exochitinases have far fewer sites at which they can act as compared to random cutting endochitinases that can cleave virtually any glycosidic linkage in the polymer.

The synergistic degradation of chitin observed when both domains were present further supports their proposed function. The presence of both domains on separate polypeptides increased the release of reducing sugars 140% over the theoretical combined rate calculated if the domains were only to act additively. This synergism would not be observed if both domains had the same activity.

Carbohydrases with two catalytic domains are rare among prokaryotes. Only a small number have been characterized, mostly from ruminants and thermophiles. For example, Ruminococcus flavefaciens 17 and Fibrobacter succinogenes S85, produce xylanases with two catalytic domains, though the latter appears to encode a xylanase with two domains of the same function. Two extreme thermophiles, Anaerocellum thermophilum (a γ-subgroup proteobacterium) and Thermococcus kodakaraensis KOD1 (an archeon), produce enzymes with two catalytic domains. A. thermophilum produces a cellulase with separate GH9 and GH48 domains that encode for endo- and exo-glucanase activity, respectively. A chitinase from T. kodakaraensis, Tk-ChiA, was shown to have an amino-terminal exochitinase domain, while the carboxy-terminus contains an endochitinase domain. Unlike ChiB of M. degradans, this enzyme also contains chitin-binding domains and is not predicted to anchor to the cell surface. Further, the exolytic domain of Tk-ChiA is able to weakly cleave the third glycosidic linkage from the non-reducing end of free chitin chains, an activity not observed in experiments with GH18_(N).

The dual catalytic domains of ChiB function cooperatively to degrade chitin to chitobiose. Though maximal depolymerization was achieved when the catalytic domains of ChiB were on separate polypeptides, there are benefits to their presence as a single unit.

First, a single promoter region is able to regulate the expression of two enzymatic activities. This permits two essential components of the chitinolytic system to be simultaneously regulated from a single locus, much like an operon regulating genes encoding a polycistronic mRNA. However, unlike an operon where several individual proteins are produced, a single enzyme is encoded. The amount of energy and secretion machinery needed to deliver two enzymatic functions to the exterior of the cell is therefore decreased.

Second, encoding both activities on a single polypeptide ensures the proximity of the two domains during the in situ depolymerization of chitin. This allows for a synergistic and focused degradation of the polymer. In the environment, secreted enzymes diffuse away from their intended targets and not be available to assist other components of a degradative system. This is partially solved by the presence of carbohydrate binding domains (which appear to be lacking from ChiB), but there is no assurance that both endo- and exo-acting enzymes will bind to the same location and have the opportunity to act in concert to achieve the full potential of the system unless linked on a single polypeptide.

When both domains were present on the same polypeptide, the synergism between the domains was less apparent. The activity detected when the domains are joined was only a modest increase over the theoretical activity when compared to the activity of the two catalytic domains as separate entities. The decreased activity of the domains when linked may be the result of the domains then moving as a single protein as each encounters substrate. For example, as the exolytic domain is cleaving soluble chitooligosaccharides away from the insoluble polymer, the endolytic domain is unable to contact, and therefore degrade, its primary substrate. The amount of reducing sugars released would increase if the domains were free to act at different locations. Such an arrangement is of less benefit in nature where substrates are much more limited and less often encountered than in laboratory reactions.

A model of ChiB activity is shown in FIG. 2. ChiB likely attaches to a surface of a cell via a lipoprotein anchor (cross-hatched box). Activity of the endochitinolytic GH18_(C) (oval) releases chitooligosaccharides from polymeric chitin (hatched box). Free chitooligosaccharides (small circles) are then acted upon by the exochitinolytic GH18_(N) (oval) that processively releases chitobiose from the non-reducing end. Free chitobiose would then be taken up by the cell and metabolized. The poly-amino acid linkers (black “S”-shapes) may provide flexibility to the enzyme and optimize interaction with substrates.

Each catalytic site has been shown to be independently active, so the linkage between the domains prevents interference between them during the degradation of chitin. The processive cutting nature of exochitinases and random cutting behavior of endochitinases is applied to the activity model of ChiB. As GH18_(C) releases chitooligosaccharides from the polymer, they can be immediately acted upon by GH18_(N) which processively cleaves chitobiose from the non-reducing end. The lipoprotein acylation site present at the amino terminus of ChiB likely functions to anchor the enzyme to the outer membrane. This notion is strengthened by the observation that chitinase activity has been associated with outer membrane preparations of M. degradans. The membrane anchorage keeps two critical enzymatic activities in close proximity to the cell and forgoes the necessity of chitin-binding domains. The catalytic domain arrangement within ChiB allows chitooligosaccharides released by the activity of the distal GH18_(C) to be transferred to the exo-acting domain, which is in close proximity to the outer membrane where newly formed chitobiose can be taken up by the cell. ChiB is found in crude membrane preparations of M. degradans.

ChiC (SEQ ID NO: 11) is a 792-amino-acid polypeptide with a calculated molecular mass of 87.1 kDa. ChiC had two Cbd3 domains. The first, a 46-amino-acid domain, is most similar to the Cbd3 of ChiB from Vibrio harveyi. The second, consisting of 49 amino acids, is most similar to the Cbd3 of ChiA from V. cholerae. ChiC also contained three PKD-like domains. ChiC had a 350-amino-acid C-terminal GH18 catalytic domain with strong similarity to ChiC from Streptomyces peucetius.

CbpA (SEQ ID NO: 12) is a 449-amino-acid polypeptide consisting of two carbohydrate binding domains but with no apparent catalytic domain. The first chitin-binding domain consisted of 220 amino acids and was most similar to the chitin-binding module of P. aeruginosa CbpD. The second was a 95-amino-acid type 2 carbohydrate-binding module with similarity to the CBM2 of a rhamnogalacturonan lyase from Cellvibrio japonicus (formerly Pseudomonas cellulosa). Similar chitin-binding proteins have been reported in a number of marine microorganisms, though their role in chitin degradation is poorly understood. It has been hypothesized that chitin-binding proteins keep a bacterium in close proximity to the chitin polymer to facilitate efficient degradation, though there is no direct evidence that these proteins bind both the cell and chitin simultaneously. A Glu-Pro-rich domain consisting of (Glu-Pro)₇ (SEQ ID NO: 22) is located between the carbohydrate-binding modules of CbpA.

CdxA (SEQ ID NO: 13) is a 1,088-amino-acid polypeptide, with a calculated molecular mass of 115.6 kDa, and comprises a typical type II-dependent secretion signal, two PKD domains, a 403-amino-acid GH18 catalytic site, and a 41-amino-acid Cbd3 chitin-binding domain. The GH18 domain is most similar to that of chitodextrinase ChiD from Alteromonas sp. strain O-7. The Cbd3 domain was most similar to the Cbd3 in Pseudoalteromonas sp. strain S91 ChiA.

HexA (SEQ ID NO: 14) is a 795-amino-acid polypeptide with a predicted molecular mass of 88.5 kDa. HexA carried a GH20 domain (glycosyl hydrolase family 20 catalytic domain 2) that is most similar to the active site of the Alteromonas sp. strain O-7 N-acetylhexosaminidase and a 348-aa GH20 domain related to the active site of the Pseudoalteromonas sp. strain S91 N-acetylglucosaminidase. HexA has an N-terminal type II-dependent secretion signal and may be a surface-anchored lipoprotein like ChiB.

HexB (SEQ ID NO: 15) is an 889-amino-acid polypeptide with a predicted mass of 98.4 kDa that contains a putative carbohydrate-binding domain, a GH20b domain found in the N-acetylhexosaminidase B of Alteromonas sp. strain O-7, and a 406-amino-acid GH20 domain identified as the active site of the N-acetylhexosaminidase of Vibrio vulnificus. HexB also contains an N-acetylhexosaminidase-like C-terminal domain related to the N-acetyl-D-glucosaminidase from Enterobacter sp. strain G-1. HexB also has an N-terminal type II-dependent secretion signal. The overall similarity of HexA and HexB to other N-acetylglucosaminidases and retention of key catalytic domains are consistent with their proposed activity.

HexC (SEQ ID NO: 16) is a 345-amino-acid polypeptide with a predicted mass of 37.4 kDa that lacks an apparent N-terminal secretion signal. Hex C has a GH3N domain (glycosyl hydrolase family 3 N-terminal domain) similar to that of Pseudomonas aeruginosa N-acetylglucosaminidase. HexC likely degrades cytoplasmic chitobiose. This activity could have a role in the regulation of genes activated by the presence of chitobiose and would also release GlcNAc for use as an energy source.

It is one aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that has a homology selected from 100%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, or 75% to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, or SEQ ID NO:3, having chitin depolymerase activity; SEQ ID NO:4, having chitin-binding protein activity; SEQ ID NO:5, having chitodextrinase activity, and any one of SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8, having N-acetylglucosaminidase activity. The present invention also covers replacement of between 1 and 20 nucleotides of any of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 with non-natural or non-standard nucleotides for example phosphorothioate, deoxyinosine, deoxyuridine, isocytosine, isoguanosine, ribonucleic acids including 2-O-methyl, and replacement of the phosphodiester backbone with, for example, alkyl chains, aryl groups, and protein nucleic acid (PNA).

It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 1×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 2×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 3×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 4×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 5×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 6×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 7×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 8×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 9×SSC. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that hybridizes to any one of SEQ ID NO:9, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, or SEQ ID NO:8 under a stringency condition of 10×SSC.

It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide having chitin depolymerase activity. It is yet another aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide having chitin-binding ability. It is a further aspect of the present invention to provide a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide having N-acetylglucosaminidase activity. It is well understood that due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, an amino acid can be coded for by more than one codon. Therefore, the present invention encompasses all polynucleotides that code for any one of SEQ ID NO: 1; SEQ ID NO: 10; SEQ ID NO: 11; SEQ ID NO: 12; SEQ ID NO: 13; SEQ ID NO: 14; SEQ ID NO: 15; or SEQ ID NO: 16.

The scope of this invention covers natural and non-natural alleles of any one of SEQ ID NO: 1; SEQ ID NO: 10; SEQ ID NO: 11; SEQ ID NO: 12; SEQ ID NO: 13; SEQ ID NO: 14; SEQ ID NO: 15; or SEQ ID NO: 16. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, alleles of any one of SEQ ID NO: 1; SEQ ID NO: 10; SEQ ID NO: 11; SEQ ID NO: 12; SEQ ID NO: 13; SEQ ID NO: 14; SEQ ID NO: 15; or SEQ ID NO: 16 comprise replacement of one, two, three, four, or five naturally occurring amino acids with similarly charged, shaped, sized, or situated amino acids (conservative substitutions). The present invention also covers non-natural or non-standard amino acids for example selenocysteine, pyrrolysine, 4-hydroxyproline, 5-hydroxylysine, phosphoserine, phosphotyrosine, and the D-isomers of the 20 standard amino acids.

Chitin degrading enzyme systems, including one or more enzymes or chitin-binding proteins, have a number of uses. In one embodiment, these systems can be used to degrade chitin to produce short chain chitooligosaccharides for use in medicine. These are therapeutic for those suffering from asthma, as indicated in Zhu et al., (Science 304, 1678-1679, 2004), the contents of which are incorporated herein, in their entirety, by reference.

Longer chain oligosaccharides have been shown to kill cancer cells and reduce blood pressure. In another embodiment, these systems are used to break down chitin into short chain sugars or beginning to break down crab shell waste to a form that other bacteria can use. This is a valuable feedstock for bioreactors or fertilizers. In another embodiment, these systems are used to de-glycosylate proteins in plants and animals that are involved in disease. Removal of such glycoslyation could be a therapy for crops or animals. The protein of interest can further be glycosylated with the appropriate sugars.

Chitin and chitosan can be used to absorb environmental pollutants and waste spills. The chitin could then be degraded by the chitin degrading systems of the present invention. Bacteria that can metabolize environmental pollutants and can degrade chitin could be used in bioreactors that degrade toxic materials. Such a bioreactor would be advantageous since there would be no need to add additional nutrients to maintain the bacteria—they would use chitin as a carbon source. Bacteria engineered to express the chitin degradative systems and metabolize environmental pollutants are one preferred embodiment of the present invention.

Chitin degrading enzyme systems can be supplied in dry form, in buffers, as pastes, paints, micelles, etc. Chitin degrading enzyme systems can also comprising additional components such as metal ions, chelators, detergents, organic ions, inorganic ions, additional proteins such as biotin and albumin.

Other embodiments of the present invention involve strategic placement of correctly folded proteins on the surface of a bacterial cell and the separation of catalytic domains in an enzyme. The genome sequence of this M. degradans revealed 46 proteins with large poly-amino acid domains. For example, ChiA and ChiB include long polyserine domains that appear to separate functional groups/catalytic domains.

Of the M. degradans genes identified that encoded proteins with poly-amino acid linkers, 18 contained a single poly-amino acid linker, while 28 had two or more. These poly-amino acid linkers have an average length of 39 residues and an average composition of 79% serine, 11% glycine, 7% threonine, and 3% alanine. Glycine residues are predominantly found immediately flanking tracts of polyserine sequence, and more than 80% of the poly-amino acid linkers have glycine residues at their start or terminus. Several of the poly-amino acid linkers also contain a single aspartic acid or cysteine residue. Though serine is a predominant residue within each poly-amino acid linker, none were identical in terms of exact residue composition or sequence. Each of the six codons for serine is used to encode serines within the poly-amino acid linkers. None of these codons is used preferentially, nor were any of them arranged in any obvious pattern or repeat.

Poly-amino acid linkers containing proteins were identified using protein sequences based upon the translated nucleotide sequences of 140 completed microbial genomes and, where possible, the 125 unfinished microbial genomes found at the NCBI microbial genome homepage. Non-redundant, annotated protein sequence databases were searched for poly-amino acid linker proteins using the PIR pattern/peptide match program at the Protein Information Resource server. The domain architecture of each poly-amino acid linker protein was analyzed using the Simple Modular Architecture Research Tool. Type II secretion signals were identified using the iPSORT program and lipoprotein acylation sites were identified at the DOLOP website.

All of the 46 M. degradans poly-amino acid linker proteins are carbohydrate depolymerizing enzymes, carbohydrate binding proteins, or proteins with similarity to known proteins involved in carbohydrate degradation. These include 2 chitinases, 8 cellulases, 10 pectate lyases, 5 xylanases, 3 mannanases, a rhamnogalacturonan lyase, an alginate lyase, and 16 proteins of unknown function. Among the 16 proteins for which no activity could be predicted, each has weak similarity to a known degradative enzyme or contains sequence similarity to known carbohydrate binding module [CBM] or catalytic domain. In cases where no sequence similarity was identified, the poly-amino acid linkers separated the proteins into segments large enough to contain presently unconfirmed catalytic sites or CBMs. Each of the 46 poly-amino acid linkers containing proteins contains a Type II secretion signal.

In M. degradans, poly-amino acid linkers separate predicted binding and/or catalytic domains. In nine proteins, a poly-amino acid linker immediately follows the secretion signal. All nine of these proteins contain an apparent lipoprotein acylation site, i.e. each has at least one positively charged residue within the first five amino acids, a hydrophobic stretch of 8 to 10 residues, and a lipobox containing the appropriately conserved amino acids, including a cysteine residue. In gram-negative bacteria, when the cysteine residue within a lipobox is acylated, the protein becomes anchored to the inner or outer membrane. In the present invention, poly-amino acid linkers separate anchoring domains from the remainder of a protein.

Forty-two of the 46 genes encoding poly-amino acid linker proteins are unique within the M. degradans genome sequence. The remaining four genes include two pairs of paralogs. The genes for two predicted pectate lyases (ZP_(—)00067834 and ZP_(—)00067832) exhibit greater than 75% identity among a carbohydrate binding domain and a Fibronectin Type III domain, and more than 80% identity between sequences corresponding to catalytic domains. The nucleotide sequence corresponding to the similarly located poly-amino acid linkers is less than 20% identical. Likewise, two cellulases (ZP_(—)00066178 and ZP_(—)00068260) also appear to have significant similarity at the nucleotide level except for their poly-amino acid linkers. In C. japonicus, the genes for XylB and XylC are located in tandem in the genome and contain duplicate sequence at their amino-termini, which includes a poly-amino acid linker. Duplicated genes wherein one of the genes encoded a poly-amino acid linker and the other did not were not identified in either organism. Thus, it does not appear that a known method of transposition or a recent, repetitive duplication event generated poly-amino acid linkers.

Interestingly, eight of the M. degradans poly-amino acid linker proteins are most similar to C. japonicus enzymes wherein sequence, overall domain architecture, and poly-amino acid linker location are conserved. Horizontal transfer is known to play a role in the acquisition of new genetic material by bacteria, though it often occurs in specific eco-niches, such as the rumen. It is unlikely that C. japonicus, a soil bacterium, and M. degradans, a marine bacterium, have recently shared a common environment. Thus, these genes may have been exchanged before each evolved to different habitats or may have been inherited from a common ancestor. In either case, these domain arrangements have been conserved for an evolutionarily long period of time, suggesting that the placement of the domains and poly-amino acid linkers within each enzyme is functionally significant.

Beyond the poly-amino acid linker proteins of M. degradans and C. japonicus, 17 poly-amino acid linker proteins were identified during searches of the non-redundant database as well as complete and incomplete microbial genome sequences. No proteins with poly-amino acid linkers were identified among archeae. Cellulose degrading enzymes with poly-amino acid linkers were identified in Pseudomonas sp. ND137, Xyella fastidiosa strain Temecula1, Xyella fastidiosa strain 9a5c, and Ruminococcus albus. Erwinia chrysanthemi encodes OutD, a pectic enzyme secretion protein, that contains a poly-amino acid linkers. These species, however, do not encode more than one protein with a poly-amino acid linker.

There are several observations that suggest poly-amino acid linkers are flexible. First, using the NORSp program, poly-amino acid linkers are not predicted to have a regular secondary structure, but are instead extended, ‘loopy’ regions. Secondly, lipovitellin, a eukaryotic protein that contains a poly-amino acid (polyserine) region, was partially crystallized. The poly-amino acid linker region was, however, not included in the crystal structure. This is consistent with the notion that disordered regions are not amenable to crystallization. Finally, glycine residues flank >80% of the poly-amino acid linkers in M. degradans proteins. These residues may increase the overall flexibility of these regions, as the flexibility of glycine is well documented. Taken together, these factors suggest that poly-amino acid linkers are disorganized, flexible spacers.

During the degradation of ICPs, flexible linker regions coupling a catalytic and a binding domain could expand the potential substrate target area available to the enzyme after a CBM makes contact with a polymer. Similarly, poly-amino acid linkers could enhance substrate availability to an enzyme anchored to a bacterial outer membrane, a potential survival advantage in the marine environment where diffusion and dilution are major factors affecting extracellular enzymes. In nine M. degradans enzymes and in several hypothetical proteins from other organisms, poly-amino acid linkers are located immediately after an amino-terminal lipobox, suggesting that poly-amino acid linkers can function to extend the catalytic and/or binding domains of a surface associated enzyme from the outer membrane.

Based upon thorough searches of existing prokaryotic genome databases, the known enzymes of C. japonicus, searches of the non-redundant database, and the considerable data afforded by analysis of the M. degradans genome, it is likely that in prokaryotes, poly-amino acid linkers are generally found within secreted, complex polysaccharide depolymerizing enzymes or proteins involved in carbohydrate binding or metabolism in order to assist in interaction with substrates.

While M. degradans encodes 46 proteins with poly-amino acid linkers involved in complex carbohydrate degradation, it likely contains nearly twice that number of extracellular carbohydrases wherein the domains are not separated by repetitive linking sequence. Similarly, C. japonicus also encodes carbohydrases that do not contain poly-amino acid linkers. The deletion of poly-amino acid linkers from two C. japonicus xylanases decreased their activity on insoluble substrates, but does not altogether abolish their activity or reduce binding. Furthermore, threonine/proline rich linkers have been shown to be dispensable with only moderate loss of activity. These observations indicate that while poly-amino acids may not be required for carbohydrase function, they may have evolved to enhance the activity of certain enzyme configurations, particularly during in situ degradation of ICPs. Though poly-amino acid linker coding sequences are dynamic, their amino acid sequences are static, suggesting specific structural constraints associated with advantageous function.

Poly-amino acids also appear to function as linker regions between functional domains within enzymes and separate binding and catalytic domains. The average length of poly-amino acid linkers is 39 residues. They are composed mostly of serine (74%), but also contain alanine, threonine, and glycine. Another proposed function of these linkers is to provide additional space between functional modules, perhaps to allow for proper folding of the peptide and to allow a larger area to be accessed by the enzyme after it has bound a substrate.

In several of these proteins, the poly-amino acid linker separates catalytic or binding domains from an amino-terminal lipoprotein box. A lipoprotein box is likely used by γ-subgroup proteobacteria to anchor enzymes to the cell surface via an acylation of an internal cysteine. Being able to separate the lipoprotein box from the catalytic portions of a protein presents several advantages. First, functional domains are not in close proximity to the cell surface, which may interfere with protein folding and function, thus in one embodiment of the invention, the poly-amino acid linkers provide a mechanism to tether correctly folded proteins to the cell surface. Second, in another embodiment, the poly-amino acid linkers ensure that the catalytic portions of the protein are exposed to the extracellular environment and not trapped in the periplasm or outer membrane. In a third embodiment, the poly-amino acid linkers expand the length of the protein so that it can ‘reach’ further into the environment to contact substrates.

The lipid-anchored proteins of M. degradans with poly-amino acid linker domains have most likely evolved to function well on the outer membrane of a Gram-negative bacterial. Functional proteins in E. coli as a lipoprotein anchors, are excellent tools for arraying any known protein of interest on the surface of an E. coli cell, while allowing the protein of interest to retain a native (and active) conformation.

The poly-amino acid linker domains described here have been observed in at least two other bacteria: Cellvibrio cellulose and Terididobacter spp. In these organisms, the poly-amino acid linker domains are not observed at the extreme amino-terminus, nor are they found in predicted lipoproteins. The amount of additional space that would exist between the cell and any arrayed enzyme by virtue of the poly-amino acid linker domain suggests that a protein expressed with this amino-terminal motif assumes a native conformation once on the cell surface.

In one embodiment of the present invention, this type of amino-terminal modification is incorporated into the construction of a plasmid vector that can be used to create fusion proteins with peptides of interest. This type of vector could have significant use in the fields of bioengineering and proteomics. In another embodiment of the present invention, this vector would allow proteins to be presented and anchored to the surface of the cell. This would allow waste to be modified by presenting an enzyme on the surface of the cell and growing the waste material in culture with the E. coli expression strain. By centrifuging the reaction, modified (and possibly valuable) products can be collected that would be substantially free of both cells and enzyme. This is of particular interest to the bioprocessing and bioremediation fields. This system could be used to display epitopes on the surface of any Gram-negative bacterium for vaccine development.

FIG. 3 shows another embodiment of the present invention. The hatched box represents the secretion signal and lipoprotein box in a polypeptide construct. In one embodiment of the present invention, a conserved cysteine (C*) is found within the lipoprotein box. This conserved cysteine is acylated by proteins in a host cell, for example Lol proteins in E. coli, thereby anchoring the construct to an outer membrane of the host cell. The poly-amino acid linker (dotted box) can begin between preferably between 1 and 30 amino acids, more preferably between 3 and 25 amino acids, and most preferably between 5 and 15 amino acids after the conserved cysteine. In one aspect of the present invention, a multiple cloning site (MCS) is inserted after the poly-amino acid linker. The MCS can be inserted 1 to 100 amino acids, more preferably between 25 and 75 amino acids, and most preferably between 30 and 50 amino acids after the poly-amino acid linker. A protein of interest can be ligated in frame with any one of the secretion signal, lipoprotein box, or poly-amino acid linker, which would allow the protein to be anchored to the outer membrane in its native confirmation. This protein can then be cleaved off the membrane and isolated.

One aspect of the present invention comprises an isolated polypeptide, which further comprises at least two domains. These domains is any one of catalytic domains, binding domains, trans-membrane domains, surface anchoring domains and lipoprotein acylation sites. One domain of the isolated polynucleotide is separated from another domain by a poly-amino acid linker, wherein at least 95% of the amino acids in the poly-amino acid linker are serines. In another aspect of the present invention, at least 90% of the amino acids in the poly-amino acid linker are serines. In another aspect of the present invention, at least 85% of the amino acids in the poly-amino acid linker are serines. In another aspect of the present invention, at least 80% of the amino acids in the poly-amino acid linker are serines. In another aspect of the present invention, at least 75% of the amino acids in the poly-amino acid linker are serines. In another aspect of the present invention, at least 70% of the amino acids in the poly-amino acid linker are serines.

Non-limiting examples of experimental methods used in the present invention are described.

Growth of bacterial strains. M. degradans strain 2-40 was grown in minimal medium containing (per liter): 2.3% Instant Ocean, 0.5% ammonium chloride, 0.2% glucose, and 50 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.6. Other carbon sources were added to a final concentration of 0.1%. Agar was added to a final concentration of 1.5% to prepare solid media. All cultures were incubated at 25° C. E. coli EC300, DH5αE, and Tuner strains were grown in Luria-Bertani (LB) broth or agar supplemented with the appropriate antibiotics and incubated at 37° C.

Construction of an M. degradans strain 2-40 genomic library. Strain 2-40 chromosomal DNA was isolated and prepared for ligation into pCC1. Sau3A fragments of 30 to 40 kb were isolated using gel extraction and ligated into Bam H1H-digested pCC1. The vector was packaged into phage and used to infect E. coli EC300. Transductants were selected using chloramphenicol (30 μg/mL).

Screening of the M. degradans strain 2-40 genomic library for chitin depolymerase activity. E. coli transductants were initially screened for chitin depolymerase activity by plating the library on LB agar supplemented with 0.1% chitin or 0.08% chitin azure and incubating for 5 days at 37° C. Chitin depolymerase activity was identified by zones of clearing around bacterial colonies. Alternatively, the chitin analogs 4-methylumbelliferyl-β-D-N,N′-diacetylchitobioside (MUF-diNAG) and 4-methylumbelliferyl-β-D-N,N′,N″-triacetylchitotrioside (MUF-triNAG) were used to screen transductants for chitinase activity. Single transductants were grown in 100 μL of LB broth supplemented with chloramphenicol (30 μg/mL). Cultures were incubated with gentle shaking at 25° C. for 12 h. A MUF analog was added to a final concentration of 1.5 μM and incubated with shaking at 25° C. for an additional 24 h. Cleavage of the analog was visualized using long-wavelength UV light.

Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and zymogram analysis. Concentrated culture supernatants of M. degradans strain 2-40 were prepared from 50-mL cultures grown at 25° C. for 50 h in minimal medium without glucose and supplemented with 0.1% chitin. All subsequent steps were performed at 4° C. Cultures were centrifuged at 10,000×g for 20 minutes and then sterilized by filtration through a 0.22-μm-pore-size filter. The filter-sterilized supernatant was then concentrated 100-fold using a centrifugal concentrator with a 10-kDa cutoff filter (Millipore). Proteins in concentrated culture supernatants were fractionated by SDSPAGE with a stacking gel in an 8% acrylamide separating gel with a final concentration of 0.01% glycol chitin. Gels were then incubated in refolding buffer (50 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA, 5 mM 2-mercaptoethanol [pH 7.5]) at 4° C. for 24 h. Gels were washed for 1 h in 100 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7) at 25° C. and then incubated in 100 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7) for 16 h at 37° C. Gels were rinsed and washed in developing buffer (0.5 M Tris, 0.01% Calcofluor [pH 7.5]) for 5 min and then rinsed with distilled water for 2 h with frequent changes of wash water. Zones of chitin depolymerase activity appeared as dark bands when viewed under UV light.

Protein expression and purification. Genes of interest were amplified using PCR and tailed primers. Each gene was digested with the appropriate restriction enzyme, ligated into the pETBlue-2 or pMal-2pX expression vector, and transformed into E. coli Tuner or E. coli DH5αE cells. A 50-ml culture of transformants carrying the clone of interest was grown at 37° C. to a optical density at 600 nm of 0.5 to 0.6, induced with isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG), and grown for an additional 3 hours at 37° C. Cells were harvested and resuspended in lysis buffer, and clarified lysates were prepared. pETBlue-2 His tag fusions were bound to Ni-NTA agarose, and pMal-2pX maltose-binding protein (MBP) fusions were purified using amylose resin. Fusion proteins were eluted with imidazole and maltose solutions, respectively. Fractions of interest were concentrated using centrifugal concentrators with 10-kDa cutoff filters, aliquoted, and stored at 80° C.

Chitinase activity assays using chitin analogs and chitooligosaccharides. To determine the specific activities of chitin depolymerases against the chitin analogs MUF-diNAG and MUF-triNAG, 900 μL of a 50 μM solution of each chitin analog was added to 100 μL of purified enzyme and incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. The fluorescence of the reaction (excitation wavelength, 365 nm; emitted wavelength, 460 nm) was determined using a Hoefer TKO 100 fluorimeter and compared to a standard curve prepared with 4′-methylumbelliferone. One unit of activity is defined as 1 μmol of 4′-methylumbelliferone released per mg of purified enzyme per min. Products of chitooligosaccharide-modifying enzyme reactions were identified by thin-layer chromatography. Enzyme reaction mixtures contained 0.45 μmol of chitooligosaccharide substrate in 10 mM Tris HCl at pH 7.5. After 1 h at 30° C., reactions were stopped by boiling for 10 minutes. Degradation products were fractionated on silica gel plates, which were developed in 2-propanol:ethanol:distilled water (5:2:1) for 1 hour. The plate was air dried and sprayed with 10% sulfuric acid in ethanol. The plate was dried and baked at 120° C. for 20 min. Chitooligosaccharide spots appeared brown and were compared to standards composed of chitooligosaccharides of known sizes.

DNA and protein sequence manipulations and analyses. Protein modules and domains were identified using the Simple Modular Architecture Tool (SMART) and pFAM database. Similarity searches were performed using the BLAST algorithm at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) server. Type II secretion signals were identified using the iPSORT program and the SignalP version 1.1 program. Multiple-sequence alignments were performed using the ClustalW program. Estimated protein molecular masses were calculated using the Peptide Mass Tool at the ExPASy server of the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics.

Complementation of a nagA mutant. The M. degradans strain 2-40 nagA gene was amplified using PCR and tailed primers with 2-40 genomic DNA as the template. The amplified DNA and pBluescript SK+ (Amp^(r)) were digested with the appropriate restriction enzymes and ligated using T4 DNA ligase to create pNagA. E. coli K-12 strain IBPC531 (nagA::cm) was transformed with pNagA and plated on GlcNAc-containing minimal medium, which contains M63 minimal salts, 0.2% GlcNAc, ampicillin (50 μg/mL), and chloramphenicol (30 μg/mL).

Cloning and Expression of GH18_(N) and GH18_(C). Oligonucleotide primers were designed to amplify the nucleotide sequence corresponding to each catalytic domain by PCR using purified M. degradans genomic DNA as a template. Each amplified fragment was then digested with the appropriate restriction enzymes and ligated into the protein expression vector pETBlue2 using T4 DNA ligase. Expression constructs were verified by sequencing and transformed into E. coli Tuner™ DE3(pLacl) cells. Protein expression was performed according to standard protocols. Cells were lysed with BugBuster™ NT lysis buffer, centrifuged, and the supernatant collected. Supernatants containing recombinant enzymes were applied to a Ni-NTA agarose column and purified according to the manufacturer's protocol for native protein purification. Purified enzyme samples were quantified using a BSA protein quantification kit.

Glycol chitin zymography. Ethylene glycol chitin was incorporated into the separating portion of an SDS-PAGE gel to a final concentration of 0.01%. After fractionation of the proteins, the zymogram was incubated in refolding buffer (50 mM Tris-Cl, 1 mM EDTA, 5 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, pH 7.5) overnight at 4° C. and subsequently analyzed for chitin depolymerase activity.

Enzyme assays using chitin analogs. Solutions of 4′-methylumbelliferyl-N—N′-diacetylchitobiose [MUF-diNAG] and 4′-methylumbelliferyl-N-N′-N″-triacetylchitotriose [MUF-triNAG] were prepared in 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). Reaction mixtures contained 2 μg of purified enzyme and 30 μM analog solution. After incubation for 5 to 10 minutes at 37° C. for GH18_(N) or 5 to 20 minutes at 30° C. for GH18_(C) reactions were stopped by submersion in an ice water bath. Liberated methylumbelliferone was detected using a Hoefer TKO-100 fluorimeter. The reaction was measured at multiple time points between 5 and 20 minutes and was found to be linear, with less than 10% of the substrate being degraded.

Oligosaccharide electrophoresis. Reactions of chitooligosaccharides were incubated with 2 volumes of labeling solution (1.0 M sodium cyanoborohydride, 0.2 M 2-aminobenzoic acid) and dried under vacuum. Each sample was mixed with standard 2×SDS-PAGE loading buffer and fractionated in a 15% polyacrylamide gel at 45 mA constant current. Labeled oligosaccharides were visualized under UV light.

Determination of reaction optima for each domain. MUF-diNAG or MUF-triNAG was added to 20 μg of purified enzyme and incubated at a given pH or temperature and activity detected as described above. The buffers used were: sodium acetate (pH 4.0 to 5.5), MES (5.5 to 6.5), PIPES (6.5 to 7.0), HEPES (7.0 to 8.0), and Tris base (8.0 to 9.5). For a given enzyme, reaction conditions that permitted maximum activity were assigned a value of 100%. EDTA, EGTA, KCl, NiCl₂, SrCl₂, MgCl₂, MnCl₂, CuCl₂, CaCl₂, or HgCl₂ were added to reaction mixtures to a final concentration of 10 mM; NaCl was added at concentrations up to 1.0 M. Reactions containing metal ions contained 200 μmol enzyme and were incubated for ten minutes at 37° C. for GH18N or twenty minutes at 30° C. for GH18_(C).

Enzyme assays using chitin and chitin derivatives. Purified enzyme and substrate (2 mg chitin or 10 nmol chitooligosaccharide) were added to 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.5 and incubated at 30° C. The amount of reducing sugar generated was determined by the DNSA assay. Specific enzyme activity was estimated by comparison to a standard curve.

Protein sequence analysis. Analysis of protein domains was performed using the Simple Modular Architecture Research Tool. Similarity between proteins and protein domains was determined by the BLAST algorithm. The lipoprotein anchoring site within ChiB was identified using the Database of Bacterial Lipoproteins.

The nucleotide and protein sequences of ChiA, ChiB, ChiC, CbpA, CdxA, HexA, HexB, and HexC have been placed in GenBank under the accession numbers shown below:

Gene Accession No. chiA BK001043 chiB BK001042 chiC BK001044 cbpA BK001045 cdxA AY233270 hexA BK001046 hexB BK001047 hexC BK001048

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described above using specific embodiments, the description and examples are intended to illustrate the structural and functional principles of the present invention and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. On the contrary, the present invention is intended to encompass all modifications, alterations, and substitutions within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. 

1. An isolated polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of one of SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 10, and SEQ ID NO:
 11. 2. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1.
 3. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:10.
 4. The isolated polypeptide of claim 1, comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:11. 